Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik / Briefing Paper

Research suggests that the impacts of climate change are felt more acutely by women than men, given their specific socioeconomic roles. It is crucial to recognise the differentiated impacts of climate change on women and the importance of their inclusion in mitigation and adaptation policies, where their voices are often unheard and their concerns remain unaddressed. As international development assistance constricts, crucial lifelines on which many projects that address gender equality rely are disappearing. Winding down such projects can also jeopardise the fragile progress made to address the structural socioeconomic conditions that create gender inequality.
Increased gender mainstreaming in national climate plans under the Paris Agreement, for example, the nationally determined contributions (NDCs), can be one way to effectively address gender inequality in climate action. Countries can develop specific climate change mitigation and adaptation plans to address gender inequality. As a new set of updated NDCs will be submitted in 2025 by the countries committed to the Paris Agreement, it is an opportune time to enhance gender mainstreaming in the next round of NDCs (NDC 3.0) based on concrete policies and actions. This policy brief explores how gender was addressed in the previous round of NDCs (NDC 2.0) of the least developed countries (LDCs) with high gender inequality. A content analysis was conducted to explore how different gendered policy approaches were mentioned in NDC 2.0 of the LDCs. Based on the findings, this policy brief provides key policy insights for better gender mainstreaming in the next round of NDCs.
Key policy insights:
• Gender mainstreaming needs to be integrated at all policy-making stages and within society, not as an add-on as it is in many NDCs.
• Women in LDCs, particularly those at greater risk of climate disasters, should be prioritised, reaching the farthest away and the most affected first in any international support for climate action projects.
• Gender mainstreaming in climate change mitigation would be essential to creating oppor-tunities for all genders to participate in the tech-nological transformation to a low-carbon society that pursues gender transformative changes.
• Projects with gender transformative plans take time and require long-term consistent funding, and greater focus is needed to choose the right projects to address structural inequalities.
• Research is required to develop evidence-based solutions, and often LDCs lack research funds for long-term studies. Research funding support from developed countries can help LDCs to improve research in LDCs and produce evidence to inform policy action.
• Gender-disaggregated data needs to be collected and used to design, evaluate, implement and fund targeted transformative policies to tackle gender inequality.

As structural change pushes countries toward technological innovation and digital transformation, there is increasing discussion how this affects the future of work for women. This paper looks at factors that foster or inhibit Jordanian women’s paid work in the digital and digitally-enabled economy in Jordan, a country with very low female labour market inclusion and restrictive gender norms, yet comparatively high female education and political willingness for labour market reforms. This makes it an ideal case to probe into possible effects of the digital economy and digital tools on barriers to women’s labour market inclusion. Based on desk research and qualitative interview data, our findings show a mixed picture. Despite the relative successful development of Jordan into a “hub” for ITC-related services and a sizeable female workforce contributing to this sector, the impact of digitalization on women’s labour market participation outside the ‘ICT sector proper’ remains rather slim. Digital tools have, so far, not meaningfully reduced labour market barriers for women but rather helped them to cope with them: Reputational gains to work in the white-collar digital economy are strong, but have not reduced gender norms on appropriate workplace or work tasks. Despite new regulations, the flexibility of remote work is not leveraged effectively to reduce barriers connected to women’s mobility or time constraints due to care work. Previous labour market segmentations and inefficiencies continue and are reproduced by a split between the digital and the digital-enabled economy. These findings do not bode well for other country contexts with a less favourable baseline in term of education or regulatory changes.

Recent years have seen a remarkable shift in the way in which governments justify their actions in the global sphere. We truly seem to have entered an “age of national interests”, where policy-makers base all decisions in international relations on self-interest-driven considerations. Even those advancing the importance of global sustainable development, rule-based global governance, development cooperation and international climate action are increasingly basing their arguments on supposed “national interests”. It is understandable that the current pressure on international cooperation leads many to resort to such narratives. However, this discursive shift is dangerous because it strengthens nationalist narratives and has adverse consequences for the practice of international cooperation.

Smallholder agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa faces many problems. The adoption of modern innovations has been low. Indigenous alternatives may constitute alternatives; however, they have received less attention. This study contributes to filling this gap in the case study of Turiani, Tanzania. A mixed-method research design was used to understand farmers’ use and assessment of indigenous technologies. The quantitative survey covered 280 households, with 16 qualitative in-depth expert interviews. Almost all farmers were aware of indigenous technologies. Well over one-third applied indigenous practices to a high degree, just over a third to a moderate degree. The assessments varied substantially by technology; most methods of harvesting, crop storage, and indigenous water management were very positively assessed, while indigenous seed practices, irrigation, and granaries received less but still positive appreciation. Farmers were divided with regard to indigenous land management and crop rotation. A few indigenous technologies have been widely considered with skepticism, particularly pest control. Overall, the results indicate that farmers merged indigenous and modern knowledge. This is highly specific, we call this ‘local’ knowledge, in explicit difference to purely ‘indigenous and traditional’ knowledge. We conclude that it would seem worthwhile to maintain, scientifically validate, possibly further refine, and disseminate selected indigenous technologies.

Climate change poses an existential threat to individuals and communities across the world. Populations with existing socio-economic vulnerabilities are the most affected, with people already experiencing climate-related losses and damages. Extreme weather events and other adverse impacts of climate change lead to forced displacement of populations to, from and within cities. Hence, building and supporting social cohesion in displacement contexts will be a key activity for development cooperation actors.
This research study therefore explores these questions: How do the elements of social cohesion, trust, inclusive identity and cooperation for the common good, evolve within communities and across institutions in Accra’s informal settlements? Additionally, what role do climate resilience efforts play in fostering or hampering vertical and horizontal social cohesion in Accra’s informal settlements?Our findings suggest that limited institutional resilience efforts contribute to weak vertical cohesion between neighbourhoods and city authorities, undermining collective responses to climate challenges. The research emphasizes the need for a more integrated approach, whereby community-led initiatives and state interventions work together to strengthen resilience and social cohesion in Accra’s informal settlements.

Under Trump 2.0, the United States withdrew from Just Energy Transition Partnerships such as the one with South Africa, resulting in significant financial setbacks that led to the cancellation of energy transition projects, compromised emissions reduction goals, and deepened dependence on coal power.

The refugee self-reliance agenda is marked by tensions and contradictions, echoing wider incoherence in the international refugee regime. We explore these through the philosophical concept of paradoxes. Paradoxes allow for multiple interests and narratives to be simultaneously ‘true’, leading to refugee policy outcomes that are often incoherent by omission instead of commission. To illustrate this, we draw on recent empirical studies to examine how increased access to digital technology can paradoxically lead to less access and agency in relation to health and financial services for refugees and less integration into host community life. We call these the paradox of information overload and the paradox of regulatory systems. We close with discussion of how paradoxes can a conceptual tool for policy makers and researchers to identify root causes of refugee policy incoherence, and how spaces of action can be created to ‘manage the paradox’.

On 21 May, an AU-EU ministerial meeting in Brussels will take stock of the cooperation results since the first summit and set out new goals and ambitions for cooperation. In today’s turbulent international environment, it may be tempting to prioritise short-term cooperation and external investment under the Global Gateway strategy. However, this approach risks overlooking the enduring legacies that shape current partnerships. Rather than maintaining an ahistorical lens, there is a pressing need to confront the full historical context of these relationships, including their uncomfortable truths, to build more equitable and informed cooperation.

South Africa’s transition to a low-carbon economy requires substantial infrastructure investments—modernizing electricity grids, deploying renewables, and enabling new sectors such as green hydrogen. However, infrastructure alone cannot achieve a just transition. Drawing on data from the Just Energy Transition Investment Plan (JET IP) and stakeholder consultations, the brief highlights a persistent imbalance: while it is expected that infrastructure absorbs a large share of grant funding due to its capital intensity, this has come at the expense of adequate support for social dimensions such as skills development, worker protection, and economic diversification in coal-dependent regions like Mpumalanga. Only 11.21% of tracked grants have been allocated to skills development, and less than 5% of Mpumalanga’s funding needs are met—the U.S. withdrawal from the International Partners Group in 2025 further strains the financing landscape. To mitigate socio-economic disruption and promote inclusive growth, the op-ed recommends scaling TVET programs, strengthening social protection systems, and increasing local participation in renewable energy value chains. Achieving a just transition will require recalibrating financial strategies to ensure that people and communities remain at the core of South Africa’s energy future alongside essential infrastructure.

Die jüngsten Wahlen in den Vereinigten Staaten und in Deutschland haben Debatten über die Zukunft der internationalen Zusammenarbeit ausgelöst, insbesondere bei polarisierenden Themen wie Migration. Trotz seiner Bedeutung wurde dem Klimawandel jedoch nicht viel Aufmerksamkeit geschenkt. Dabei sind Klimawandel und Migration eng miteinander verknüpft, und politische Maßnahmen, um diese Überschneidung wirksam anzugehen, sind unerlässlich. 

The Colombian government’s response to the Venezuelan displacement crisis has largely been lauded for its efforts to support displaced persons by granting legal residency. However, this comes with challenges, as resources at the local level are strained. These challenges can be understood through the lens of social cohesion, which encompasses a sense of belonging, trust, the common good, shared values, identity and, at its core, inequality. By examining the case of Colombia, this research provides context-specific findings that potentially deepen our understanding of social cohesion in displacement contexts. In a very short period, Colombia has received more than 3 million displaced Venezuelans. The government of Colombia responded to this displacement with open-door policies that included large regularisation programmes. In response, Colombians have learnt to live with Venezeulans in relative harmony, despite the structural economic and social issues affecting the communities.
Looking to the future of developing greater social cohesion in the context of Venezuelan displacement in Colombia, the research points to four main themes. Investments in civic education and support with integration at the local level can help Venezuelans and host communities better understand one another’s social and economic realities in the present and future. This is key since Venezuelans struggle to understand the long-standing Colombian conflict and how the violence permeates the society and their communities. Engaging with local peacebuilding actors can help develop a shared understanding about violence in Colombia, both for Venezuelans and host communities. While xenophobia and discrimination have diminished over time, policy-makers should build on the local efforts that have helped tamp down xenophobia. Finally, the media has an important role in spreading xenophobic narratives about migrants harming social cohesion in the communities. These narratives can have a toxic effect on building social cohesion in host communities, and leaders need to push back against these messages.

Dr Stephanie López Villamil is an independent consultant.

The international landscape in mid-2025 is characterized by a retreat from liberal institutionalism, exemplified by the United States’ withdrawal from the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and its adoption of transactional, power-based international relations, and its potential withdrawal from some multilateral bodies. In this context, this paper argues that traditional models of universal multilateralism are increasingly untenable, and that new forms of collective action grounded in shared interests and normative alignment are both necessary and feasible. This paper focuses on developing the concept of ‘like-minded internationalism’ as a response to the erosion of multilateral cooperation in a period marked by geopolitical contestation and the resurgence of nationalist foreign policies. Drawing on two illustrative cases—UNITAID, a global health financing mechanism, and the High Ambition Coalition, a climate and environmental diplomacy initiative—the paper outlines the characteristics, formation, and operational logic of like-minded internationalism. The paper concludes by considering implications for the future of global development (cooperation). We argue that the ‘Plan B’ presented is not a retreat from multilateralism, but an adaptive response to its breakdown—one rooted in coalitional agency, institutional pluralism, and strategic pragmatism.

This paper examines the political conditions conductive to closing the structural implementation gap in urban climate policy, conceptualized as a policy adoption gap and a policy outcome gap. I argue that closing an adoption gap starts with an interaction between subnational policy experimentation and national policy learning, while closing an outcome gap hinges upon effective guardrail institutions guiding political decision-making. To substantiate this argument, I draw on evidence from Mexico’s public transit buildup (2009–2016). I show how the development of bus rapid transit systems in eight cities was driven by a fiscal support policy and enabled by three guardrail institutions: a capable implementing organization, a process for disciplining public authority, and a mechanism for redistributing public outlays. These findings underscore the importance and limits of bottom-up policy change in enabling urban transformations. They suggest that effective urban climate governance relies on institutions that discipline rather than empower urban political actors.

Bonn, 12. Mai 2025. UN-Friedenssicherung steckt in der Krise. Während die Zahl bewaffneter Konflikte so hoch ist wie lange nicht, hat die politische und finanzielle Unterstützung für Friedensmissionen der Vereinten Nationen einen neuen Tiefpunkt erreicht – und das, obwohl ihre Wirksamkeit klar belegt ist. Auf dem bevorstehenden UN Peacekeeping Ministerial kommen führende Politiker*innen aus aller Welt zusammen, um über die Zukunft der Friedenssicherung zu diskutieren. Bei diesem hochrangigen politischen Forum sollten die Teilnehmenden die Chance ergreifen, ihr Engagement für dieses unverzichtbare Instrument zu bekräftigen.

Das Hauptziel der Vereinten Nationen ist die Förderung der internationalen Zusammenarbeit, des Friedens und der Sicherheit. UN-Friedensmissionen sind eines ihrer sichtbarsten Instrumente, bei denen Militär-, Polizei- und Zivilkräfte in Konfliktgebieten zum Einsatz kommen um dazu beizutragen, den Frieden zu sichern und die Zivilbevölkerung zu schützen. Das kann zum Beispiel die Unterstützung bei der Entwaffnung ehemaliger Kämpfer*innen, die Ausbildung von Polizeikräften, oder den Abbau illegaler Checkpoints einschließen. Alle Missionen erfordern sowohl ein Mandat des UN-Sicherheitsrats als auch die Zustimmung des Einsatzlandes.

Der Bedarf an Friedenssicherung ist groß, aber die Unterstützung schwindet. Die Zahl bewaffneter Konflikte hat 2023 einen neuen Höchststand erreicht. Humanitäre Krisen verschärfen sich und unzählige Menschen kommen in Konfliktgebieten ums Leben. Dennoch werden die Mittel für Friedenseinsätze der Vereinten Nationen Jahr für Jahr gekürzt. Das Budget ist in den letzten zehn Jahren um mehr als ein Drittel geschrumpft. Gleichzeitig zeugen prominente Fälle wie Israels vorsätzlicher Angriff auf UN-Friedenstruppen und die bröckelnde Unterstützung durch Gastländer von der Legitimationskrise der UN-Friedenssicherung. Diese Entwicklungen sind nicht überraschend in einer Zeit, in der die internationale Zusammenarbeit und ein gemeinsamer Sinn für globale Verantwortung zunehmend nationalistischer Politik und populistischer Rhetorik weichen.

Friedenssicherung ist gewiss kein Allheilmittel. Fallstudien werfen wichtige Kritikpunkte auf, etwa mangelnde Kontextsensibilität. Dabei zeigen sie Reformbedarf auf und weisen auf Probleme und Schwächen bekannter Missionen, wie in der Demokratischen Republik Kongo, hin. Gleichzeitig gibt es Vorwürfe, dass die Friedenstruppen nicht genug für den Schutz der Zivilbevölkerung getan hätten. Alles in allem könnten diese Punkte als Gründe dafür angeführt werden, die Wirksamkeit und Effizienz des Instruments in Zweifel zu ziehen.

Dabei gibt es zahlreiche Belege dafür, dass UN Friedensmissionen wirksam sind. Studien belegen, dass die UN-Friedenssicherung zum Schutz der Zivilbevölkerung beiträgt, einen Wiederausbruch von Bürgerkriegen verhindert, die Zahl der Todesopfer verringert, die Ausbreitung von Gewalt eindämmt und Flüchtlingsströme begrenzt. Darüber hinaus kann schon die Aussicht auf eine UN-Friedensmission eine Friedensvereinbarung erleichtern. Kritiker*innen führen die positiven Ergebnisse teils darauf zurück, dass Friedenstruppen vor allem in ‚einfachen Fällen‘ zum Einsatz kommen würden. Tatsächlich ist jedoch das Gegenteil der Fall: sie sind an den Frontlinien der schwersten Konflikte im Einsatz. Während es leicht ist, anzuprangern, wenn Angriffe auf Zivilist*innen von Friedenstruppen nicht verhindert werden konnten, ist es sehr viel komplizierter zu ermitteln, wie viele Angriffe dank der Präsenz der Friedenstruppen ausgeblieben sind. Wirksame Prävention ist äußerst kosteneffektiv, bleibt aber oft unsichtbar. Wissenschaftliche Studien können diesen „unsichtbaren“ Mehrwert ermitteln und zeigen deutlich, dass Friedensmissionen einen nachweisbaren Nutzen erbringen. Auch wenn UN-Friedensmissionen Probleme aufweisen, die gelöst werden müssen, sind sie ein wirksames Instrument zum Schutz der Zivilbevölkerung und zur Schaffung von Frieden.

Um die UN-Friedenssicherung zukunftsfähig zu machen, sind mehrere Aspekte entscheidend. Erstens müssen die Mandate der Missionen mit angemessenen Ressourcen unterlegt sein, um eine Lücke zwischen Anspruch und Fähigkeit zu vermeiden – denn diese schwächt die Wirksamkeit und gefährdet den Erfolg. Zweitens benötigen UN-Friedensmissionen „robuste“ Mandate für den Schutz der Zivilbevölkerung. Um einen dauerhaften Frieden zu fördern, sollten diese Mandate mit umfassenden friedensfördernden Maßnahmen einhergehen, wie dies beispielsweise in Liberia erfolgreich geschehen ist. Drittens muss anerkannt werden, dass die Zusammensetzung der Friedenstruppen Einfluss auf ihre Wirksamkeit hat. Sie erfordert daher systematische Planung und darf nicht bloß als logistische Frage betrachtet werden. Viertens ist vorausschauendes Handeln entscheidend, sowohl für den Erfolg der Mission, als auch für den Schutz der Zivilbevölkerung. Zu diesem Zweck muss die UN-Friedenssicherung ihre Frühwarnmechanismen modernisieren. Schließlich wurden in den letzten Jahren wichtige Fortschritte in punkto Geschlechtergerechtigkeit in Ausbildung und Missionsgestaltung gemacht, die angesichts des derzeitigen politischen Klimas bewusste Anstrengungen erfordern, um sie zu erhalten.

Beim Peacekeeping Ministerial müssen sich die Mitgliedstaaten erneut dazu verpflichten, das Instrument der UN-Friedenssicherung aktiv zu unterstützen. Die entsendeten Kräfte brauchen robuste und klar definierte Mandate, ausreichende Ressourcen und politische Rückendeckung. In einer zunehmend fragmentierten Welt können wir es uns nicht leisten, auf eines der zuverlässigsten Instrumente zur Schaffung und Erhaltung des Friedens zu verzichten.

Christoph Dworschak ist Evaluator am Deutschen Evaluierungsinstitut der Entwicklungszusammenarbeit (DEval)* und Leiter für Quantitative Methoden des Beyond Compliance Consortiums der University of York. Sein Forschungsschwerpunkt liegt in der Friedens- und Konfliktforschung. *Die Inhalte des Texts sind die persönlichen Ansichten des Autors und entsprechen nicht notwendigerweise der Position des DEval.

Karina Mross ist Senior Researcher bei IDOS. In ihrer Forschung untersucht sie, was zur Förderung von Frieden und gesellschaftlichem Zusammenhalt in von Konflikt betroffenen Kontexten beiträgt, mit einem Fokus auf Friedensförderung und politische Institutionen.

To meet the Paris Agreement's aim of limiting global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius, there is an urgent need for countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by transitioning their energy sectors from fossil-based to zero‑carbon sources. Despite strong climate policies and gradual emissions reductions, Germany remains the greatest emitter in the European Union. Coal, responsible for almost 35 % of the country's CO2 emissions, is not scheduled to be phased out until 2038. Wind, one of Germany's greatest sources of renewable energy, has faced challenges due to a 1000 m federal ‘rule’ between residential buildings and wind turbines. The German coal phase-out and the onshore wind phase-in are linked to questions of procedural injustice in energy, as showcased in multiple studies. In this paper we develop a comprehensive framework that introduces the concept of political inequality as a lens to examine procedural injustice in energy transition decision-making, arguing that it offers greater nuance. We apply the framework to Germany's coal phase-out and onshore wind phase-in, asking how stakeholders in the German energy transition – i.e. the Energiewende - report political inequalities of voice, representation, treatment and influence in these decision-making processes, both at the federal level and in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. We also explore how such inequality impacts climate mitigation in Germany's energy sector and whether it slows progress. Our findings from twenty-eight semi-structured interviews with German decision-makers, civil society and activists, highlight multiple reported inequalities in these processes that point to several procedural injustices in energy transition decision-making in Germany. However, while political inequalities can indeed slow progress on climate mitigation in the energy sector, the reverse may also materialise. Further research is needed to understand how the tension between political inequality and climate mitigation unfolds in the German energy sector and in the broader energy transition.

In this study, we investigate the role of matrilineal kinship norms for gender gaps in labor market outcomes. We analyze the implementation of a reform that significantly altered the customary inheritance system by restricting practices within matrilineal ethnic groups, while those of non-matrilineal groups remained unchanged. As a result, men in matrilineal groups are now more likely to inherit from their fathers rather than their maternal uncles, fundamentally reshaping traditional kinship norms. Using cross-sectional survey data over multiple years in a difference-in-
differences framework, we find that restricting these norms substantially increases the gender gap in adult labor hours and child labor. These effects are concentrated in land-owning households, with particularly strong impacts on agricultural labor. In contrast, although the reform leads to  significantly reduced transfers to women—indicating weakened ties to their extended families—we find no evidence of tighter household budget constraints or declines in female bargaining power. This suggests that the observed labor effects are not driven by reduced support from the matrikin. Instead, the findings point to a mechanism in which improved prospects for male land inheritance increase men’s incentives to engage in agricultural work by raising the returns to their labor.

This essay adopts a relational lens to examine China–Africa media interactions, focusing on the role of African journalistic agency in shaping relationships with Chinese counterparts across macro, meso, and micro levels. Drawing on interviews and multi-sited fieldwork conducted in China, Kenya, Ethiopia, Zambia, and Mauritius, it aims to provide a nuanced understanding of African journalistic agency in diverse contexts and propose a future research agenda.

Susan S. Ekoh argues that strengthening, rather than diminishing, international cooperation on migration offers important benefits to migrants, sending countries and receiving countries like Germany, particularly in the context of climate change.

The contribution proposes a novel theoretical synthesis between recent Arctic scholarship, which draws on English School concepts and ‘third wave’ constructivist norms research to analyse the ‘boundary practices’ prevailing in Arctic governance. Through the boundary concept, the article draws attention to a host of intergovernmental and interparliamentary institutions engaged in shaping practices linked to the ‘responsibility to freeze’, referring to efforts to mitigate the impact of climate change on the region’s inhabitants and beyond. Based on participant observation and policy and institutional document analyses generated between 2021–2023, the article argues that the web of Arctic governance might undergo a reconfiguration. Having previously withstood the pressures of geopolitical crises originating outside the region, the governance web is now overshadowed by recent geopolitical developments, potentially triggering a recalibration of the political centre away from the Arctic Council and towards other fora. This would raise new questions of responsibility, accountability, and authority – all of which may negatively affect marginalised decision-makers holding prominent roles in the current governance setup, such as Indigenous communities. Going forward, although Arctic boundary work remains collaborative, the fragmentation and associated multiple loyalties limit the extent to which geopolitical fallout can be reconciled with tackling the biggest issue affecting the planet – climate change.

Der Begriff Umweltgerechtigkeit (environmental justice) ist sowohl als politische Forderung als auch als interdisziplinäres Forschungsfeld und analytische Perspektive zur Untersuchung ökologischer Verteilungskonflikte zu verstehen. Der Beitrag stellt verschiedene Dimensionen der Umweltgerechtigkeit vor und führt in aktuelle Ansätze, Methoden und Perspektiven der sozialwissenschaftlichen Umweltgerechtigkeitsforschung ein, die von besonderer Relevanz für die Umweltethnologie sind.